INTRODUCTION

With the ever increasing demand on irrigation water supply, farmlands are frequently faced with utilization of poor quality irrigation water. In many parts of Ethiopia, waste water, which are disposed to wells, ponds, streams and treatment plants, are used as a source of irrigation water as well as for drinking (Alemtsehaye, 2002). But, the continued application of poor quality irrigation water can reduce the yield of farmlands. Water quality for agricultural purpose is determined on the basis of the effect of water on the quality and the yield of the crops, as well as, the effect on the characteristic changes in the soil (FAO, 1985). The most commonly encountered soil problems used as a basis to evaluate water quality are those related to the salinity, water infiltration rate, toxicity and a group of other miscellaneous problems (Richardson, 1954; Wilcox, 1966).

Kombolcha is one of the few towns in Ethiopia with a relative greater number of large-scale manufacturing plants including Textile Factory, ELFORA-Meat Processing Factory, Tannery, BGI-Brewery Factory, Steel Product Industry and Flour Factory. On top of this, the town is selected to be an industrial town by Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia, which indicates the industrial development and its associated pollution risk will increase in the future. The existing industries have been discharging their wastes into the surrounding environment, in particular to the near by river. According to the local woreda agriculture office, more than 25,000 farmers are diverting the effluent contaminated rivers water to irrigate about 2695 ha of farmlands in order to grow different crops including cereals, vegetables and fruits (Kalu Woreda Agricultural Office, 2006). In addition, the latest report from the local agricultural administration office explains that despite the fact that many farmers and enterprises have used the local rivers for irrigation since long time ago; no study has been conducted yet on the chemistry of the polluted river water for its irrigation suitability (Kalu Woreda Agricultural office, 2007). In Kombolcha, perhaps the most important factor in predicting and managing farmland soil is the quality of irrigation water being used.

The main intention of the study is to provide concrete information on the magnitude of the industrial liquid wastes and help farmers and policy makers to take the necessary corrective measures on time. The impact of industrial liquid wastes on the irrigation water quality  was assessed  by examining  the concentrations of Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, BO3-3, CO3=, HCO3-, Cl- and values of pH and SAR in the polluted irrigation rivers water through laboratory analysis. Soil samples were also taken to assess the quality of the irrigation water effect on the irrigated farm soils properties.

 

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Location of Study Area

The study area is found in the town of Kombolcha which is located on the north central part of Ethiopia placed immediately south east of Dessie in the Amahara region at 11o06’ north latitude and 39o45’ east longitude. River Borkena crosses the town emerging from the east and running to the west direction. In its way all through the town, it receives effluents indirectly through its tributaries rivers named Worka and Leyole. Most of the factories are found closely together in the middle of the town near by the tributary rivers of Borkena.

Methods Samples of irrigation water and farmland soils were collected in three phases with in the irrigation period of the study area. Acceptable standard methods and instrumentations were followed during sample collection procedures. Sampling site selection: Based on the outlining of the irrigation sites and waste disposal points, three areas were selected to take water and soil samples viz a farmland at the above the effluent points (control) which was irrigated by effluent free (freshwater of River Borkena) water and two farmlands below the effluent points which were irrigated by effluent contaminated rivers water (River Leyole and River Worka). The mean values of the parameters in the control fresh irrigation water source and the effluent contaminated water of the other water sources were compared with the widely accepted standards set by FAO. The soil samples of the respective irrigated farmlands were also considered to assess the extent of the impacts of the effluent contaminated irrigation water on the characteristics the soils. The chemical parameters that have been measured in the diverted irrigation water were also determined from the soil samples of the selected irrigated farmlands. Both surface and subsurface soil samples were taken once from the fresh water irrigated farmland (control or background) at the upper and three times from the effluent mixed irrigated farmlands at the lower of the effluent points through out the irrigation period of the study area. TDS, ESP and SAR were computed following the formulas stated in FAO soil bulletin 42. Chlorides, nitrogen-nitrate, sulfate, chromium and some samples of phosphate were found to be below the detection limit in the first phase samples analyses.

Water samples: 9 water samples were taken from January 2007 to June 2007. The sampling frequency was in three phases throughout the irrigation season. In first phase, additional parameters were analyzed other than the mentioned ones in the internationally accepted irrigation water quality guidelines by FAO (1976c; 1985) in order to have a better understanding on the water quality characteristics. The chemical variables analyzed in the second and third phase were made to stick only to those recommended in the FAO standard guidelines.

Samples were taken from two sites. One is from a main diversion channel (from the fresh water of River Borkena) above the effluent points.  These samples served as background and were non effluent contaminated; the others were from the main channels at lower of the effluent points which were diverted from industrial effluent recipient rivers named Leyole and Worka. The samples were collected at the same location in all phases of samples collection from the irrigation surface water sources of the selected farmlands. All samples were collected by grab method. While taking the samples, the time of the effluent discharge from the factories was watched out and made the sample collection so in order to take advantage of the effluent presence in the collected irrigation water samples. One liter of water sample was collected per location in a plastic bottle thoroughly cleaned by distilled water. The plastic bottle was rinsed with the water to be sampled just before sample collection and was labeled and recorded on the Water Information Sheet. The samples were then stored in refrigerator at less than 40C temperature till it was delivered to the laboratory for analyses. All samples were transported in ice box and delivered with in two days.

Soil samples: Before sample collection, site characterization and soil profile descriptions were done by close observation and examination of dug pits on the study areas. First, the surface characteristics were recorded. Then, the soil description was made according to the Guidelines of FAO (1990).

Nine composite surface soils samples and 21 subsurface soils samples were taken from the farmlands irrigated by the above three sources of irrigation water in the irrigation period of the study area.  The control soil samples were taken from a farmland placed upper of the effluent points which were irrigated by fresh water (effluent free). The other two areas are found below the effluent point and were irrigated by the effluent contaminated river water of Leyole and Worka rivers.

Composite surface soils: samples were taken from the center of shovel slice in a 30cm by 30cm core. This was repeated randomly at 20 different spots with in the demarcated farmlands. The collected samples were put in a plastic bucket and thoroughly mixed and at the end, 500gm of soil is removed as the composite sample representing the whole field. The samples were made to air dry for a few days and transported for laboratory analyses in plastic bags. While sampling, areas of back furrows or dead furrows, old fences rows, areas used for manuring or hay storage and livestock feeding, small gullies, slight depressions, terraces, waterways or unusual areas were all avoided.

Subsurface soil samples: A pit, in all of the three demarcated sampling areas, was dug to take subsurface soil samples; a depth of 90 cm pits was dug at the selected farmlands. A sample of 500gm soil was removed in each 30cm sections downward. The morphological and other characteristic of the soil was examined in the dug pits which were large enough to allow observations. Sampling from the boundaries of the horizons was avoided. The rule of soil description was made to follow the guidelines of FAO (1996) for soil description. The samples were air dried and transported along with the surface soil samples with in a few days in plastic bags. All soil, surface and subsurface, samples in the plastic bags were labeled and recorded by codes on the Soil Information Sheet.

Physico-chemical determination of soil and water samples: pH values were read on ORION model SA720 pH meter with a standard solution calibrated at pH values of 4.7 and 9.2. Electrical Conductivity was read on EC meter InoLab (WTW series) which was calibrated using 0.01NKCl standard solution. The cations Na+, K+, Mg+2, and Ca+2 were determined by atomic absorption spectrometer (Varian SP-20).  CO3= and HCO3 - were measured by titration using phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators respectively. Chloride was titrated by Argentometry methods. The instrument used for phosphate, nitrate and sulfate measurement was UV visible spectrophotometer. All analyses  followed the standard procedures as outlined by USSL staff (1954).TDS and SAR were calculated by formulas as it is suggested in FAO Soil Bulletin 42 (1985).

Data analysis and interpretation techniques: To make irrigation suitability evaluation and quality difference comparison, the values of the chemical variables of lower farmlands irrigation water and soil samples were taken after computing the average of the three phase samples collected in one irrigation period (start, middle and last irrigation times). At the upper farmland (background), a single variables measurement of soil was taken at the starting period of the irrigation season. These values were used for testing of significant irrigation water quality changes due to industrials effluent discharge in to the irrigating rivers. The most widely applicable irrigation water quality guideline, which is set by FAO, was selected for suitability evaluation. The assumptions made by the selected guideline were then evaluated against the local conditions and it was generally found that most of the assumptions of the chosen guideline for evaluation of irrigation water quality of the rivers are the same to the actual conditions of the study area. There are no as such wide deviations between the assumptions of the guideline and the related local conditions study area. Finally, the values were compared to their respective standards recommended by the internationally accepted guideline in order to evaluate their degree of restriction on use for irrigation.

Since water samples were taken from three different rivers located above and below the effluent points, the test statistics for the significant quality difference in water samples was run by The Independent-Samples T Test. The absence of irrigation practices at the upstream parts of the wastes draining rivers (River Leyole and Worka) forbids the easiest and rather straight forward quality changes between upstream and downstream water samples due to the intrusion of effluents. Besides, as all the three rivers originate from the same neighboring catchments areas with more or less the same geological and biophysical characteristics, the quality of the rivers water is assumed to be the same unless otherwise another external element, like the industrial effluents, is introduced in the rivers.  To overcome the mentioned limitation, water and soils samples were taken from another neighboring site with non effluent contaminated river water (River Borkena) and irrigated farm soils.

SPSS VERSION-13 software has been employed to run the test. The T Test procedure produces two test of difference between water samples parameters in the two distinct rivers under investigation. One test assumes the variances of each parameter in the two rivers samples are equal. The Levene Test Statistics tests this assumption. Based on this test, for a significance probability (Sig.) of greater than 0.1, equal variances in the rivers is assumed. Other wise it is ignored and the second test which assumes unequal variance is taken. The frequency of sample variables measurements were three, and the hypothesis was tested at significant level (alpha) 0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Quality and suitability of the rivers’ irrigation water: The water samples that have been analyzed to measure the levels of electrical conductivity, sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, carbonate, bicarbonate, pH and boron. In addition, sulfate, phosphate, nitrogen-nitrate, fluoride and chromium were added to asses their levels in the first phase of sample collection. The measured values of the parameters were recorded three times over the six months. Some of the parameters, like nitrate, chromium and sulfate, were found to be below the detection limit of the laboratory instruments. Other important parameters like TDS and ESP were computed by the formulas stated in FAO Soil Bulletin 42 (1985). The adjusted SAR (adj RNa) was recalculated using the newer equation adapted from Suarez (1981).

The T test for the pair of upper control water and Leyole irrigation water shows that the mean of Na+, Cl-, HCO3-, B+3 concentrations and the value of EC are greater at the latter (See Table 1). On the contrary, the concentration of Ca+2, CO3= and the value of pH were lesser at the latter. Mg2+ was found to be the same in both rivers’ irrigation water. Statistically, it was seen that there is a significant difference (at P£ 0.05) in mean pH value and Na+ concentrations between the two sampling locations. Other water parameters (EC, Cl-, HCO3-, SAR), though they indicated appreciable difference in concentrations, they were found to be significantly not different in concentration when compared in the two irrigation water rivers. The T test for the pair of control fresh water and Worka river irrigation water also reveals that there is a significant (at P£ 0.05) quality difference between them in Na+, Mg+2 concentrations and SAR (Table 9). The other mean parameters (Cl-, CO3=, HCO3-, B+3, and pH) were found not significantly different in the two rivers. Chemical parameters, like electrical conductivity, sodium, chloride, bicarbonates, boron, pH, and SAR were found to be at higher concentration in the effluent mixed irrigation water of River Worka in relative to the background effluent free water. The comparison between the two effluents contaminated rivers by the T Test shows all chemical variables but chloride ions are not different significantly (at P£ 0.05).

Effect of industrial effluent on selected soil properties of irrigated farmlands: as the suitability of water for irrigation is evaluated based on the criteria indicative of its potential to create hazardous soil conditions to crop growth, the effect of  the applied irrigation water was referred specifically in terms of  salinity, water infiltration, specific ion toxicity and related miscellaneous problems. I. Salinity: The mean electrical conductivity of the control irrigation water was 0.4807 dS/m and is put as none restricting for irrigation. The electrical conductivity of Leyole and Worka rivers irrigation water increased to1.624 dS/m and 1.260 dS/m respectively. Based on the standards of FAO (1985), these figures plunge nearer to a potentially slight degree of restriction to use for irrigation. The salinity of all irrigated farm soil at the upper areas was found to be less than even 0.05 dS/m (Table 11); this is justified by the low salinity of the applied irrigation water and the practice of surface irrigation methods which help to leach down salts in the rooting depth. However, there was an increase in salinity at the lower area farm soil with 0.0413dS/m and 0.038dS/m for each effluent contaminated irrigated farmlands as compared to 0.017dS/m of upper fresh water irrigated farmlands. This may indicates that the irrigation water of Leyole and Worka rivers is elevating the salinity of the lower areas farmlands soils.

II. Water infiltration: since EC values of all rivers are was not found enough cause permeability problem, the salinity of all irrigation sources is not a factor to cause infiltration problems. The concentration of sodium as compared to calcium and magnesium, which is measured in terms of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), was found to be less or none restricting in the control irrigation water; however, in the effluent contaminated water of Leyole and Worka rivers, which was detected be 7.71 and 8.18 respectively, it was found high and is potentially restricting. The effect of high SAR water irrigation is noticeable in the soil samples of the irrigated farmlands causing excessive exchangeable sodium percentage (29.24%) in the lower farmlands soils relative to the upper area farm field which has only a maximum ESP of 8.83%.

III. Specific ion (sodium and chloride) toxicity: The ions of primary concern were chloride, sodium and boron ion toxicity because these ions are usually related to water toxicity and industrial wastes in arid and semi-arid areas (FAO Soil Bulletin, 1985). But the toxicity effects need to be explained by taking into account indicator crops, which is not the intention of this particular study. However, the assessment of these ions in the water and soils of the irrigated farms could show the general trends with the associated risks of toxicity.

 

The mean concentration of chloride was quite low in all irrigation water sources and the restriction on use for irrigation is none. The soil samples possessed the smallest (below detection limits) content of chlorides too. At the lower of the effluent points, a little higher reading was obtained in both surface soil samples of Leyole river irrigated farmlands and sub surface soil sample of Worka river irrigated farm fields.

The mean sodium ion concentration of the upper control water of the Borkena river was determined to be less (30.33 ppm / 1.32me/l) and none restriction on use. But the levels in effluent mixed water of Leyole (186.67 ppm / 8.11me/l) and Worka (195 ppm / 8.48me/l) rivers were higher and can pose moderate restriction on use for irrigation. Accordingly, the soil samples of the downstream farms displayed 160% to 400% increment of sodium ions as compared to the upper farmlands soil samples. The increased level of sodium at the lower of the effluent point’s irrigation water and farmland soils can be attributed to the presence of caustic soda, for the purpose of washing, in the effluents of Kombolcha Textiles, ELFORA Meat Processing and BGI brewery factories. Besides this, the existence of high bicarbonates in the effluent mixed of the two rivers cause Ca+2 and Mg+2 to form insoluble minerals leaving Na+ as the dominant in solution.

At the upper fresh irrigation water of the Borkena river, the mean boron concentration was 0.3 ppm and is none restricting to irrigation. At the lower areas, it was highest (1.15 ppm) in Leyole river which is slight to moderate restriction on use. In the irrigation water of Worka river, it was 0.97 ppm and is near to slightly restricting on use for irrigation (Ayers and Westcot, FAO 1985).  All soil samples at the lower areas were below the detection limits, but on areas lower of the effluent points, some samples were indicating that boron is introduced in the surface and subsurface soil of the fields. This could be because of the presence of boric acid in the effluents from the tannery factory.

IV. Miscellaneous: These include measurements of bicarbonate, carbonates, calcium, magnesium and pH of the water. The mean concentration of bicarbonates in Leyole river irrigation water (734 ppm/12.03me/l) was exceptionally high and is beyond the accepted level. But the concentration in control water of the Borkena and Worka rivers irrigation water was 290.67 ppm (4.76me/l) and 367 ppm (6.01me/l) respectively (Table) and is in the normal range of concentration for use in irrigation. The bicarbonates ion conditions in the water of the  irrigation rivers led to have the same related distribution of bicarbonate content in the soil of the irrigated farm fields with highest accumulation in Leyole river irrigated farmlands (4873.67ppm/ 79.9me/l)  and lowest in farmlands irrigated by the fresh water of the control river  (Table). The increased levels of this ion in the soil can be attributed to the long term application of the effluents. The level of carbonates, calcium and magnesium in the irrigation water samples of the three sources were all in the normal range and do not show a notable difference between upper and lower of the effluent point’s soil and water samples.

 

Mean pH of the upper control water of the Borkena river and Leyole river water were found to be 8.37 and 7.14 respectively, which is both considered to be in the normal range for irrigation. The average pH in the irrigation water of Worka was 8.8 and is beyond the safe limits. The higher value of pH in Worka river is perhaps attributed to the presence of carbonates ions in the water. The soil samples of the upper areas farm fields indicated that pH value increases with the soil depth. The presence of high bicarbonates in the Leyole river water can justifies higher pH values in the soil solution. The sediment loads from industrial solid wastes of the tannery, textiles and steel product factories was seen to fill canals and ditches that are diverted from river Leyole  causing costly dredging and maintenance problems.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Through this study, it is clear that the industrial waste has substantially changed the irrigation water quality diverted from the two rivers and consequently, some chemical elements also increased in the soil of the irrigated farmlands. EC of Leyole and Worka rivers was differentiated to be a slightly restricting. As onion is a major vegetable grown in local area, based on Ayers (1977) prediction; if the irrigation water is used continuously, the prevailing EC values might causes a potential 10% yield decline. Leaching is needed to avoid the associated long term risks.

According to Mass (1987), some of the crops grown in the local farms irrigated by Leyole River (like onion, carrot, potato and cucumber) would also be sensitive to the prevailing concentration of BO-3. Notably, the Na+ and SAR content of Leyole and Worka rivers were higher and would pose permeability problems (surpassed the safe limits). Since the root system of most crops develop best in the upper 30 cm of the soil (FAO Soil Bulletin 55, 1985), the existing higher SAR levels of irrigation water in the soils render problems of drainage, tillage and surface crusting and these could affect crop yield. The existence of Vertisol also pronounces the effect of low infiltration because of the swelling and shrinkage of soil containing clays minerals and the subsequent collapse of soil pores (Levy and Miller, 1997). If sprinkler irrigation method is applied in the future, the concentration of Na+ could also cause foliar injury on the growing local vegetable like tomato, pepper, potato and maize (Mass, 1990). 

The higher HCO3- concentration in Leyole river irrigated soil solution can harm the mineral nutrition of plants, since excesses HCO3- affects the uptake and metabolism of nutrients. Higher soil pH (9.08 – 9.36) values was found in Leyole river irrigated farmland soils. Such values of pH in farm soils may have a profound effect on availability of plant nutrients, as micronutrients, for instance; iron, manganese, zinc, copper, and cobalt are less available at a pH > 8.5 (Ayers and Westcott, FAO 1985).

All chemical parameters analyzed in the surface composite soil samples were found to be higher in farmlands irrigated by effluent mixed irrigation water of the two rivers. This indicates that the trend of the chemicals, which are important for suitable irrigation, is alarmingly increasing. The problems seems exacerbate in the town farmlands soil type, as Ayers and Westcott (1985) state low quality irrigation water is hazardous on clayey soil (particularly in Worka irrigated farmlands), while the same water could be used satisfactorily on sandy and/or permeable soils.

Since quality of water is an important priority for both environmental and economic reasons, it is vital that the fate of wastewater effluent in the surrounding rivers is to be well understood.

Soil permeability problems (excessive Na+ and SAR) can be improved by blending the fresh water of the Borkena River with the effluent contaminated water, in particular to Leyole River. Blending proportion and implementation could be guided by the local agricultural administration. Other practices that can be done at individual farm level may include cultivation and deep tillage, increasing duration of irrigation, changing the direction of irrigation to reduce slope, collecting and recirculation of run off water, using organic residue, using soil or water amendments (gypsum, elemental sulfur etc.) and changing irrigation water supply.

Analysis of effluents only by the parameters selected under this research study is not adequate. Heavy metals, Organic and synthetic pollutants are suspected to be discharged with the liquid wastes and are rarely analyzed  and thus it demand further investigation to assess their effects on the activity of soil microorganisms, crop productivity and crop quality.

Assessment on the trend of the farmlands yield should be conducted in order to have better perspective of the effluents impact on soils. It also creates awareness (to factories officials and farmers) of the problems, thereby urging to seek for corrective measures. Recent reports from the health center (2006) of the town indicated that the nearby community is frequently exposed to upper respiratory tract infection, asthma, malaria and skin diseases. Studies need to be conducted on the water quality and emission value of particulate matter in to the air in order to asses their clear impact on health. Since Kombolcha is chosen as a city of industrialization by the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia, all concerned bodies must focus on appropriate industrial waste management strategy and integrated with the industrial development.

 REFERENCES

 

Alemtsehaye Birru. 2002. Assessment of the fertility and pollution status of irrigated vegetable farms around Addis Ababa city. Final report. Addis Ababa Agricultural Office, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Kalu ‘Woreda’ (province) Agricultural Activities Annual Report. June, 2006.

R.S. Ayers.  1977. Quality of Water for Irrigation. Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division. ASCE. Vol. 103. No. IR2. P. 140.

Ayers, R. S. and D. W. Westcott, FAO 1985. Water Quality for Agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 29, Rev.1.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy.

Biswas, A, 1998. Environmental Planning Management and Development. PP.208 – 402.

FAO. 1985. Soil Bulletin 55, Guidelines: land Evaluation for Irrigated Agriculture. Roma, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nation

FAO.1985. Soil Bulletin 42, Soil Survey Investigation for Irrigation. Rome, Italy. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nation

FAO. 1998. Conservation and Development of Dry Land Resources.  (CD-ROM). Land and Water Digital Media Series No. 2. Rome: FAO

Levy GJ, Miller WP (1997) Aggregate stability of some southern US soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 61:1176–1182.

Mass (1987) Salt Tolerance of Plants. CRC Handbook of Plant Science in Agriculture. B.R. Cristie (ed.). CRC Press Inc.

Mass (1990) Crop Salt Tolerance. Agricultural Salinity Assessment and Management Manual. K.K. Tanji (ed.). ASCE, New York. pp 262-304.

National Urban Planning Institute. 2001. Report On: Development Plan of Kombolcha Town.

Richards, L. A. (ed.) (1954). Diagnosis and Improvement of saline and alkaline Soils. United States Department of Agriculture. Agriculture Handbook No. 60. Washington, D.C., USA.

U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils.

Westcot, D. W. and R. S. Ayers. 1985. Irrigation Water Quality Criteria, In G. S. Pettygrove and T. Asano (eds.) Irrigation with Reclaimed Municipal wastewater: A Guidance Manual.

 

 



About the Author:

Authors: - Eskinder Zinabu , MSc
- Eyassu Yazew PhD (Major Advisor),
- Mitiku Haile PhD (Co-Advisor)
Biographical statement
I (Eskinder Z.) was born in Ethiopia on June 20, 1974. I have graduated with B.Sc. degree in Agricultural Engineering from Alemaya University of Agriculture (renamed ‘Haramaya University) in 1996. After serving at different capacity in Sugar Factory and Agricultural College, I continued my education career and graduate with M.Sc. in Tropical Land Resources Management from Mekelle University in 2008.
Now, I am a Senior Instructor and Head Department of Natural Resources at Kombolcha ATVET College. Besides lecturing different courses in the department, I also actively participate in research studies and project works related to natural resources and community services.

1-Kombolcha ATVET College, P.O.Box 56, Kombolcha, South Wollo, Ethiopia (eskyak@yahoo.com)
2-Mekelle University, P.O.Box 231, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia ( eyasuet@yahoo.com)
3-Mekelle University, P.O.Box 231, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia (gualmitiku@yahoo.com)

Heat, drought and water reductions are common in today's environment, leading commercial farmers and backyard gardeners alike to explore the benefits of drip irrigation.

Compared with conventional sprinkler irrigating, drip irrigation is efficient, economical and appears to create healthier plants. Drip irrigation is the slow, even application of water that diverts water directly to plants by low pressure distribution. This is achieved with plastic tubing that is localised straight at the root zone. It can be utilised both inside (such as in greenhouses) and outdoors.

Water is Conserved Through Drip Irrigation Systems

When applying sprinkler irrigation, a significant amount of water is lost. It runs off the earth's surface and or it evaporates before it reaches the roots of the plants, where it is most needed. On the other hand, drip irrigation slowly delivers water to where it is required at the root level. When mixed with mulch, this method of irrigating results in a huge decrease in evaporation and runoff. Drip irrigation systems can be positioned on the surface of the soil or below the soil. Farmers are discovering that if they drip irrigate during the heat of the day, their crops flourish.

Drip Irrigating Delivers Nutrients and Reduces Pets and Weeds

Soil additives and fertilizers such as nitrogen can be injected into the drip tubing on a periodic basis. In managing the application of required nutrients and fertilizers through injection into drip irrigation systems, research is revealing that crop production yields are higher and healthier.

Growers have observed that when they are using drip irrigation systems, there are fewer pests to contend with. There are also reductions in weeds since water is moving only to where it is needed, rather than being spread across the center of rows where crops are not planted. This results in lower pesticide and weedkiller use, as well as the labor called for in applying chemical applications.

Initial Costs May Be High

Contemporary drip irrigation systems have evolved beyond home use by backyard gardeners and are becoming progressively popular on row crops. While the initial cost ininstalling irrigation lines, pumps and filters can be steep for commercial farmers, the long-run cost is less with lower labor, bugs, weeds and water loss.

Commercial growers typically divert their water from irrigation ditches or well water to the drip irrigation delivery system. They use a pump and filtration system to move the water from its source to the irrigation piping. Not only is there an expensive initial cost outlay, but the process of installing the drip irrigation system is expensive. Some have calculated that the new systems cost roughly $2000 per acre.

Nonetheless, there is an upside. Growers are discovering up to a 50% gain in production when they are using drip irrigation. And of course, they are conserving water which is a big benefit in today's world of drought and water reduction requirements.

Aid for Farmers

Some government aid may be available through the National Soil Conservation Service which was founded in 1936. The NSCS is organized by districts throughout the counties and states and is managed by the United States Department of Agriculture. Conservation program grants and consulting services are available on the NSCS internet site or through its local chapters.

Conclusion

Drought is anticipated to be a national problem over the forthcoming years. Backyard gardeners and commercial growers alike may want to explore drip irrigation as a means to reduce costs and stay in business.



About the Author:

Urbain Beck is a freelance writer who has been published in a number of online and offline publications. Discover how a 400-acre chile farm in New Mexico shifted from traditional irrigation to drip irrigation systems at http://www.western-water.com.

You may ask 'what are water garden kits?' Let's just say that this is like Batman's utility belt for every gardener who has a water pond. With water garden kit, the water gardener has everything he needs.

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There are some special pellets that combine the high quality required amino acids, digestive enzymes and vegetable proteins. Water gardeners and koi enthusiasts turn to these kinds of pellets for assurance that their pets will be healthy,

Usually, a water garden pond kit contains pond liner, the underlayment for the pond liner, a submersible pump, a filter, pond sterilizer, tubings, fittings and nozzle. Get the easy start pond kit to help you gear up for the water garden pond that you have always wanted.

The most popular garden kits are those that have everything the water gardener needs to have an attractive water garden. From maintaining the ponds to feeding the fish, the items inside the garden kit must be of top quality.

If a pump is included in the water garden kit, make sure that it can suck the water from the pond even with the skimmer flap placed above it. The pump should also filter the water as it passes through skimmers and pushed out to the tubing.

In fact some pumps have steam effect that allows it to make greater water drops (that is if you have a fountain). The good thing about having a water garden kit is that there are accessories that can play up your creativity, especially if you have a water garden fountain in your pond.

Most of the time, water garden kits can be assembled in the sense that it is a complete package deal for those who have water garden ponds with fountains. Considering the fact that it contains most of the tools you need for your hobby.



About the Author:
Lee Dobbins writes for http://watergardens.garden-g8way.com">Water Gardens at garden-g8way.com where you can learn more about water gardens and accessories like the http://watergardens.garden-g8way.com/Articles/Water_Garden_Kit.php">water garden kit.

Are you concerned about the amount of water you use in the maintenance and upkeep of your landscape? This article will provide you with ways to conserve water with the right Scottsdale landscaper. Whether you're looking to save water for environmental purposes or save money on utilities, the following information will be beneficial to you and will help you avoid wasting your resources.

Minimizing your water consumption is a win-win situation all around. You save money on your water bill and your landscape gets the water it needs without waste. Water conservation is the most cost-effective and environmentally sound way to reduce our demand for water and there are a number of ways to save water when it comes to Scottsdale landscaping.

Did you know...?

Over half of residential water use goes into our landscapes, which makes watering efficiently one of the best and easiest ways to save water. Professional landscape design and proper planning can help reduce water use by 60 percent, increase your home's value by as much as 25 percent, decrease the costs associated with landscape maintenance and help to keep your landscape plants healthy and beautiful throughout the year.

Developing a comprehensive landscape plan for your property just makes sense. A carefully thought out plan will enable you to create a beautiful outdoor landscape that enhances existing features and adds new ones that can help you save water, money and energy.

A professional Scottsdale landscaper can help you develop and architectural quality plan for your water-saving landscape. They start with a simple base map of your property lines and then expand it into a detailed plan that includes existing structures and sun/rain exposure. They'll look for things like spigot and downspout locations, trees, slopes, existing sprinkler systems and more.

In addition to conserving water, you can also save on energy costs. Strategically placed trees and shrubs can help you save up to 25 percent on yearly heating and cooling costs. During the winter, trees and shrubs shield your home from cold winds, reducing heat loss. In summer, shade trees can reduce the need for cooling.

Xeriscaping is a popular Scottsdale landscaping method used to promote water conservation in landscaped areas. Converting your existing landscape to a xeriscape is not complicated - it just requires a little expertise on regional climates and few improvements to the property.

A professional Scottsdale landscaper can provide direction and guidance by mapping your water and energy conservation strategies and base them on your regional and micro climates. This is crucial, as plant selection and locations will depend on where you live and how they'll flourish while saving water. They will also be able to help you reduce the amount of turf areas, which usually requires a lot of supplemental watering.

Other things to consider in a xeriscape are improvements in the soil to absorb water and encourage deeper roots, irrigation techniques that water plants in the most efficient locations, using mulch to keep roots cool and minimize evaporation and maintaining landscape through fertilizing, trimming and controlling pests.



About the Author:

John Waters is Principal of Creative Environments Design Landscape, the largest and most respected landscape design company in Arizona. Let our team of Scottsdale landscapers work with you to design and develop xeriscape plans that will fit your individual style and budget.

With the old familiar variety of garden hoses as well as black Poly irrigation systems, there are two major problems that occur along the length of the hose or pipe, one is cracking and/or splitting of the hose/pipe and the second problem is the familiar kinking of the hose/pipe. So what can you do about it besides going out and buying a new hose or roll of poly' pipe? Well there is at least one repair method that should help with either problem. Without the cost and problems of putting expensive joiners into your watering system.

Split Hoses/Pipes

What do you do once your garden hose or irrigation pipe has developed a crack or split after your son has mowed over it or you've managed to drive over it once too often?

With either type of system, you could cut out the section of the damaged hose or pipe and put in a joiner, but sometimes this is impractical or impossible. Then why not look at repairing it instead of replacing it. Use the same method as you would for a kinked hose. Which is listed below.

Kinking Hoses/Pipes

Once a garden hose or irrigation pipe has jack-knifed back on itself at a particular spot, it will continue to do so for the life of the hose/pipe. This is because it has become weakened at that point. Again you have the option to cut out the weakened area and join the remaining parts of the hose. Or you will have to look at repairing the weakened area to stop it kinking in future, you can do this by bracing the weakened area/s by the following method . . .

What you will need to repair split/kinked hoses or irrigation pipes

An excess section of garden hose or irrigation pipe A Sharp knife or blade Container of hot water Measure and cut off a small section of hose/pipe, approximately three inches long, or as long as is needed to cover over the weakened or broken area. Cut this section down its length on one side only.

Soften the hose or pipe section in hot water. Open it up and wrap this like a bandage around the weakened section of hose/pipe.

This acts like a splint over the weak area, strengthening it so that at that point it will not kink or fountain out water anymore.

If you are repairing a split area of the hose you may have to look at sealing the hose with something like a silicon sealant. But you will find that simply putting the hose splint will greatly reduce and/or stop the leak.

The hose or pipe splint will not move off of the weakened or split area because it rehardens fairly quickly as it cools, this tightens its grip over the weak part of your hose/pipe.

Repeat this procedure for other areas that are split or are prone to kink of the garden hose or irrigation pipe that you are using.

So if that garden hose or irrigation system of yours is split in one or more places or is kinking all the time, and it is frustrating you no end, then do something other than throwing it out. Either repair it or at least keep the old hose or pipe to repair your future watering systems.



About the Author:

The Bare Bones Gardener is a qualified Horticulturist and a qualified Disability Services Worker. He hates spending money on stuff which doesnt live up to the promises given. So he looks for cheaper, easier, simpler or free ways of doing the same thing and then he passes these ideas on to others.

Garden Blog - http://barebonesgardening.blogspot.com/

Grow a beautiful garden the water wise way

Saving water and enjoying the beauty and environmental benefits of plants are not only possible, but easy says the American Association of Nurserymen (AAN). "Water Wise" gardening is built on some basic, commonsense principles:

Planning

Planning a water wise garden or landscape is as easy and fun-as planning any type of garden. Talk to the professionals at your local center/landscape firm to see which plants will do well in your area. You may be surprised to find that some very beautiful, colorful plants are low on water consumption-and they may fit into your landscape perfectly.

Group together plants that require the same amount of water. Plant trees and shrubs to provide shade to cool buildings, air conditioning units, patios, decks, and other landscape features. Shelter container plants by moving them to shady areas. Spike or aerate lawns to insure maximum water penetration. Control weeds which compete with useful plants for water.

Soil Improvement

Soil improvement is another easy and beneficial step in building a water wise garden. Soil that is well prepared at the time of planting influences the plant's initial development and yields the best results. And plants placed in the proper soil will be healthier, often needing less water.

Soil characteristics include texture, structure, depth, and nutrients. To find out more about your soil content, test your soil with the following garden products: Accugrow Soil Test Kit or the Sunleaves Three-Way Meter.

Wise Irrigation

Efficient irrigation is a critical part of water wise gardening. Your irrigation system can be simple, such as a hand-held hose, or elaborate, such as an in-ground sprinkler system. Consider a drip water conservation system, which can save up to 60% of water used by sprinkler irrigation. Whatever you choose, make sure you plan your watering to get best results.

Deep, infrequent watering, promotes root growth and is the wisest use of water and encourages strong rooting. This provides greater tolerance to dry spells. Water early in the day, and on less windy days, to reduce evaporation loss. The ideal time is from dawn to 9:00 a.m. Turn off sprinklers before water is wasted as runoff into gutters and streets.

Mulching

Mulching is always a benefit to your garden and can help prevent soil erosion and evaporation, conserving the water that is available and keeping your plants healthy and strong.

Maintenance

Maintaining your water wise garden means learning how to water all over again. You may find that watering less means having more time to sit back and enjoy your garden. Generally, plants should be watered less often and for a long period of time. Drip, soaker, or deep root watering promotes healthy plants and less water use.

Water Wise Gardening Tips

Follow these handy watering tips from AAN, and you'll soon be started on your own environmentally sound garden or landscape. For garden products mentioned in this article, please visit http://www.spray-n-growgardening.com



About the Author:

Are you concerned about the amount of water you use in the maintenance and upkeep of your landscape? This article will provide you with ways to conserve water with Tucson landscaping tips and guidelines. Whether you're looking to save water for environmental purposes or save money on utilities, the following information will be beneficial to you and will help you avoid wasting your resources.

Minimizing your water consumption is a win-win situation all around. You save money on your water bill and your landscape gets the water it needs without waste. Water conservation is the most cost-effective and environmentally sound way to reduce our demand for water and there are a number of ways to save water when it comes to Tucson landscaping.

Did you know???

Over half of residential water use goes into our landscapes, which makes watering efficiently one of the best and easiest ways to save water. Professional landscape design and proper planning can help reduce water use by 60 percent, increase your home's value by as much as 25 percent, decrease the costs associated with landscape maintenance and help to keep your landscape plants healthy and beautiful throughout the year.

Developing a comprehensive landscape plan for your property just makes sense. A carefully thought out plan will enable you to create a beautiful outdoor landscape that enhances existing features and adds new ones that can help you save water, money and energy.

A professional landscape designer can help you develop and architectural quality plan for your water-saving landscape. They start with a simple base map of your property lines and then expand it into a detailed plan that includes existing structures and sun/rain exposure. They'll look for things like spigot and downspout locations, trees, slopes, existing sprinkler systems and more.

In addition to conserving water, you can also save on energy costs. Strategically placed trees and shrubs can help you save up to 25 percent on yearly heating and cooling costs. During the winter, trees and shrubs shield your home from cold winds, reducing heat loss. In summer, shade trees can reduce the need for cooling.

Xeriscaping is a popular Tuscon landscaping method used to promote water conservation in landscaped areas. Converting your existing landscape to a xeriscape is not complicated - it just requires a little expertise on regional climates and few improvements to the property.

A professional landscape designer can provide direction and guidance by mapping your water and energy conservation strategies and base them on your regional and micro climates. This is crucial, as plant selection and locations will depend on where you live and how they'll flourish while saving water. They will also be able to help you reduce the amount of turf areas, which usually requires a lot of supplemental watering.

Other things to consider in a xeriscape are improvements in the soil to absorb water and encourage deeper roots, irrigation techniques that water plants in the most efficient locations, using mulch to keep roots cool and minimize evaporation and maintaining landscape through fertilizing, trimming and controlling pests.



About the Author:

John Waters is Principal of Creative Environments Design Landscape, the largest and most respected landscape design company in Arizona. Let our team work with you to design and develop Tucson landscaping that will fit your individual style and budget.

Garden irrigation system installation is not complex, and can be successfully done if a few practical aspects are kept in mind. I found that taking shortcuts often results in additional work or repair. Some of what follows is common sense for the practical minded, but could easily be overlooked.

It all starts with a proper garden and lawn irrigation system design. Practical aspects of a good design would ensure that sprinklers spray away from buildings so that walls do not become wet. The capillary action of water in masonry will lead to damp inner walls. Some spray against garden walls is not serious. Where the garden is fenced, care should be taken to avoid over spray into the neighbors garden. The water lines should also be kept as short as possible keeping in mind that labor costs far outweigh the cost of irrigation pipes.

The route of the trenches in which the irrigation pipes will be buried should be carefully planned before digging starts. A large number of pipes can be accommodated in a single trench, so try and route pipes together to reduce trenching. The most practical route is to dig the trench just inside flowerbeds and right next to the edge of the lawn. This way only annual border plants are affected by the digging and the lawns remain unaffected.

Trenches should also take the shortest route to the sprinkler position inside flower beds to minimize damage to plants and roots of large shrubs and trees. It is also advisable to try and keep a good distance from the trench to the tree trunks. Tree trunks close to a sprinkler would affect the spray pattern. In cases where the sprinkler position is close to a tree, the sprinkler should be moved to a better position, even if the rest of the spray pattern is negatively affected. Try and find a good compromise, always remembering that in a good garden irrigation system, sprays should be positioned to spray head to head.

When digging inside a flower bed, existing plant positions should be carefully noted. Where possible try and trench around plants to minimize the number that has to be removed. If plants have to be removed, they should be removed carefully with sufficient soil attached to their root balls. Place removed plants on plastic sheeting preferably in the shade. While digging and installing the garden irrigation system, try and walk in the trenches to prevent undue damage to plants. Place plants back in their original positions after the pipes have been installed and the trenches filled.

Should severe frost and freezing occur where the garden system installation is done, great care should be taken to ensure that the trench bottoms are graded correctly and sufficiently to ensure that the lines drain out after each irrigation cycle to prevent the water freezing in the pipes. A suitable drainage sump should be constructed at the position of the flush valve.

I have seen many garden system installations ruined by dogs, and by forks while digging in the garden after installation. To minimize this from occurring, trenches should be dug to a depth of 400mm (1 and 1/2 foot) plus the diameter of the pipe. A good idea is to use pop-up sprays that are not easily accessible to pets. Dogs just love chewing on leaking sprinklers! This is another good reason to drain your system immediately after each irrigation cycle.



About the Author:

Copyright reserved by Georg Rosenbrock of Gardening Links (www.directory.design-gardens.com). More practical tips on garden irrigation systems appear on the www.Design-Gardens.com website.

A water garden could be either natural or artificial but there are two things, which bring them together - the adding of some kind of water gardening feature and the existence of water forming the central theme. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a legendary garden of ancient times, brought into play a prominent water gardening feature.

In addition, Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain is also renowned for its water gardening feature. The water gardens have recaptured their importance in the landscaping area in the past few years, encompassing container based water gardens to great outdoor arrangements. They are referred by several names like water ponds, aquatic gardens, and backyard ponds.

An actual water garden employs varied water gardening features to make up the entire setting. The principal kinds of water garden features, which are frequently used, are waterfalls, fountains, waterways (streams) and ponds. The water garden feature not only greatly enhances the loveliness of the garden but also creates the calming, gentle rhythm of the flow of water.

In addition, it presents the ideal environs to draw wildlife, particularly birds, whose kaleidoscopic colors and gentle sounds augment the charm and splendor of the water garden.

On the other hand, the introduction of a water garden feature calls for extra amount to be invested in equipment since a pump and water filtration system are essential. These two particular items of equipment are indispensable for the proper maintenance of the water garden's delicate ecosystem. The water pump ensures that the water continues to flow and thus make available the precious oxygen for the aquatic flora and the fish to survive. In addition, it inhibits mosquito breeding, as the mosquitoes are quite likely to take to the surrounding of a water garden feature and breed.

Further, a filtration plant ensures that the water is clear and is hygienically maintained so that aquatic flora and fauna can thrive.

A certain facet of a water garden feature that most people are unaware of is employing this water feature to disguise or hide imperfections in the garden. Expert landscape artists draw on a water garden feature constantly to cover up landscaping drawbacks, with nobody being aware of such a thing.

There is not a single thing that can present the kind of harmony and stillness that a sparkling fountain can apart from gazing at the calm cool waters of the stream gushing by joyously. To some extent, it is due to these causes that that water garden feature is a prized possession in most outdoor gardens. In the present scenario, with most people electing to live in condominiums, miniature indoor fountains are coming to the rescue of homeowners, making it possible to take their water garden feature inside their homes.

Moreover, people now have the alternative of harnessing solar power for pumps required for a water garden feature, thus cutting down on electricity costs and helping in preserving the environment.



About the Author:

Abhishek is a self-confessed Gardening addict! Visit his website http://www. Gardening-Master.com and download his FREE Gardening Report "Indoor Gardening Secrets" and learn some amazing Gardening tips for FREE! Create the perfect Garden on a shoe-string budget. And yes, you get to keep all the accolades! But hurry, only limited Free copies available!. http://www. Gardening-Master.com